help button home button
AJRCCM
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Published ahead of print on May 25, 2006, doi:10.1164/rccm.200605-699OC
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Online Supplement
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
200605-699OCv1
174/4/400    most recent
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Ogawa, E. N.
Right arrow Articles by Takeda, J.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Ogawa, E. N.
Right arrow Articles by Takeda, J.
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine Vol 174. pp. 400-407, (2006)
© 2006 American Thoracic Society
doi: 10.1164/rccm.200605-699OC

Original Article

Contribution of High-Mobility Group Box-1 to the Development of Ventilator-induced Lung Injury

Eileen N. Ogawa, Akitoshi Ishizaka, Sadatomo Tasaka, Hidefumi Koh, Hiroshi Ueno, Fumimasa Amaya, Masahito Ebina, Shingo Yamada, Yosuke Funakoshi, Junko Soejima, Kiyoshi Moriyama, Toru Kotani, Satoru Hashimoto, Hiroshi Morisaki, Edward Abraham and Junzo Takeda

Departments of Anesthesiology and Medicine, School of Medicine, Keio University; Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Tokyo Women's Medical University Daini Hospital, Tokyo; Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto; Respiratory Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Institute of Development, Aging, and Cancer, Tohoku University, Sendai; Central Institute, Shino-Test Corporation, Kanagawa; Ono Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Osaka, Japan; and Department of Medicine, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama

Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Akitoshi Ishizaka, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan. E-mail: ishizaka{at}cpnet.med.keio.ac.jp


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Rationale: Proinflammatory cytokines play an important role in ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). High-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) is a macrophage-derived proinflammatory cytokine that can cause lung injury.

Objectives: This study tested the hypothesis that HMGB1 is released in intact lungs ventilated with large VT. A second objective was to identify the source of HMGB1. A third objective was to examine the effects of blocking HMGB1 on the subsequent development of VILI.

Methods: Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissues were obtained from rabbits mechanically ventilated for 4 h with a small (8 ml/kg) versus a large (30 ml/kg) VT. BALF was also obtained from rabbits with intratracheal instillation of anti-HMGB1 antibody before the initiation of large VT ventilation.

Measurements and Main Results: The concentrations of HMGB1 in BALF were fivefold higher in the large than in the small VT group. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence studies revealed expression of HMGB1 in the cytoplasm of macrophages and neutrophils in lungs ventilated with large VT. Blocking HMGB1 improved oxygenation, limited microvascular permeability and neutrophil influx into the alveolar lumen, and decreased concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-{alpha} in BALF.

Conclusions: These observations suggest that HMGB1 could be one of the deteriorating factors in the development of VILI.

Key Words: high-mobility group box-1 • macrophage, rabbit model • ventilator-induced lung injury

Although mechanical ventilation is an essential support in patients suffering from severe respiratory failure (e.g., acute respiratory distress syndrome [ARDS]), clinical and experimental observations have shown that it can be harmful under some conditions (1, 2). Because the pathologic changes of ARDS are inhomogeneously distributed in the lungs, less diseased areas can be overstretched by mechanical ventilation, causing ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) (3–5). Besides mechanical stretch and shear stress, inflammatory cytokines produced in the lung, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-{alpha}, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, IL-10, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 (a rodent homolog of IL-8), IFN-{gamma} (6), and IL-8 (7) promote VILI (8).

High-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), a nonhistone, chromatin-associated protein produced by nearly all cell types (9), has been identified as a late mediator of endotoxin lethality and acute lung inflammation in mice (10). Elevated serum concentrations of HMGB1 in septic patients are a marker of poor prognosis (10), and HMGB1 levels are increased in the plasma and lung epithelial lining fluid of patients with acute lung injury (ALI) (11). ALI, with accumulation of neutrophils, development of interstitial edema, and increased production of IL-1beta, IL-1Ra, TNF-{alpha}, and MIP-2 in the lungs, occurs within 24 h after the intratracheal administration of HMGB1 in mice (11, 12). HMGB1 is secreted by macrophages 8 h after stimulation with endotoxin and 18 h after stimulation with IL-1beta and TNF-{alpha} (10). Necrotic or injured cells can also passively release HMGB1 (13).

Although HMGB1 has potent inflammatory properties that contribute to the development of ALI, its involvement in VILI has not been examined. Therefore, this study tested the hypothesis that HMGB1 is released in intact lungs ventilated with large VT. A second objective was to identify the source of HMGB1 by immunohistochemical staining of lung tissue and immunofluorescence studies of inflammatory cells in overinflated lungs. A third objective was to examine the effects of blocking HMGB1 on the subsequent development of VILI.


   METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
An expanded methods description can be found in the online supplement. Our experimental protocol was approved by the Council on Animal Care of Keio University and was in compliance with the guidelines of the National Institutes of Health. We studied 47 male Japanese White rabbits. The nonventilated group included six rabbits without mechanical ventilation. After tracheotomy, 12 rabbits were randomly assigned to a group ventilated with a VT of 8 ml/kg (small VT group, n = 6) versus 30 ml/kg (large VT group, n = 6). Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from the right lung and blood was collected after 4 h of ventilation. The left lung was used to measure the wet-to-dry weight (W/D) ratio. All rabbits received 5 mg of human serum albumin (HSA) intravenously 1 h before death to determine the lung permeability index, which is defined as the HSA in BALF-to-plasma ratio expressed as a percentage (14). The concentrations of HSA, IL-8, TNF-{alpha}, and HMGB1 (15) were measured by ELISA. The activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was analyzed by spectrophotometric assay. The BALF sediments were used for white blood cell (WBC) and differential cell counts.

To locate HMGB1, immunohistochemical studies were performed using specimens from nine rabbits randomly assigned to one of a nonventilated group, a small VT group, or a large VT group (n = 3 in each group). The specimens were counterstained with hematoxylin–eosin and elastica-Masson stains. A blind coexperimenter counted the numbers of macrophages and neutrophils per millimeters squared in 10 randomly chosen views. Immunofluorescence staining for HMGB1 was also performed in macrophages and neutrophils collected from BALF. The inflammatory cells from a lung ventilated for 4 h with a 30 ml/kg VT were assigned to the large VT group, and the cells from a nonventilated lung were divided into a control and a LPS-stimulated group. In the latter group, 1 pg/ml of LPS was added, and cells were incubated for 4 h. HMGB1 was visualized by an indirect immunofluorescence technique.

In the HMGB1-blockade study, 18 rabbits were randomly and evenly assigned to a normal saline group, a control antibody group, or an anti-HMGB1 antibody group, which, respectively, received intratracheally 1 ml of sterile saline, 2 mg of nonspecific isotype-specific antibody, or 2 mg of anti-HMGB1 antibody (Shino-test, Kanagawa, Japan) dissolved in 1 ml of sterile saline (14). After 4 h of ventilation with a 30-ml/kg VT, BALF from the right upper lung and the blood was collected. The right lower lobe was used to measure the W/D ratio.

The data were analyzed by the StatView version 5.0 software (Abacus Concepts, Berkeley, CA). Because the data for cell count in immunohistochemistry could not assume the normal distribution, nonparametric analysis was used. Other data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance followed by Fisher's test for the comparison among three groups and unpaired Student's t test for the comparison between two groups. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. The results are expressed as means ± SEM.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Effects of Mechanical Ventilation on the Release of HMGB1 in the Lung
The ventilatory settings and the blood gas analyses in each group are summarized in the online supplement (Tables E1 and E2 in the online supplement). The respiratory rate was higher in the small VT group to maintain a stable PaCO2 partial pressure. In the large VT group, PO2 was lower and PCO2 was higher after 4 h than after 2 h of ventilation, although the differences in arterial blood gases between the two VT groups at the same time points did not reach statistical significance. There were no significant differences in hemodynamic measurements between the small and the large VT groups (data not shown).

Permeability index and W/D ratio.
The permeability index was higher in the large than in the small VT group after 4 h of mechanical ventilation (Figure 1A). Likewise, the W/D ratio was greater in the large VT group than in the nonventilated and the small VT groups (Figure 1B).


Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
Figure 1
View larger version (51K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 1. Effect of mechanical ventilation on lung permeability, wet-to-dry (W/D) weight ratio, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, and the accumulation of inflammatory cells in lungs with no mechanical ventilation versus lungs ventilated with a small (8 ml/kg) or a large VT (30 ml/kg) for 4 h. (A) Lung albumin permeability index. (B) W/D ratio in left lobes. (C) LDH in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). (D) Neutrophil and macrophage counts in BALF. Values are means ± SEM. n = 6 in each group. *p < 0.0001 versus the nonventilated and small VT groups. {dagger}p < 0.05 versus the nonventilated and small VT groups. {ddagger}p < 0.01 versus the nonventilated and small VT groups. §p < 0.05 versus neutrophils in the same group.

 
LDH in BALF and plasma.
The LDH activity in BALF was significantly higher in the large VT group than in the control or the small VT group (Figure 1C). Plasma LDH activity was higher in the small VT (158 ± 23 IU/L, p < 0.01, vs. the nonventilated group) and the large VT (139 ± 9 IU/L, p < 0.05, vs. the nonventilated group) groups than in the nonventilated group (56.9 ± 14.1 IU/L).

WBC counts.
Marked neutrophil accumulation in BALF was observed in the large VT group, whereas the macrophage counts were similar among the study groups (Figure 1D). The number of neutrophils did not differ from that of macrophages in the large VT group.

HMGB1 in BALF and plasma.
The concentrations of HMGB1 in BALF and plasma are shown in Figure 2A. The HMGB1 concentration in BALF of the large VT group was significantly higher than in the other groups. HMGB1 was undetectable or nearly undetectable in most plasma samples.


Figure 2
Figure 2
Figure 2
View larger version (32K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 2. Concentration of high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) in plasma and concentrations of HMGB1, interleukin (IL)-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-{alpha} in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of lungs with no mechanical ventilation and in BALF of lungs ventilated with a small (8 ml/kg) or a large VT (30 ml/kg) for 4 h. (A) HMGB1 concentration in BALF and plasma. (B) IL-8 concentration in BALF. (C) TNF-{alpha} concentration in BALF. TNF-{alpha} was detected in the large VT group only. Values are means ± SEM. n = 6 in each group. *p < 0.05 versus the nonventilated and small VT groups. {dagger}p < 0.0001 versus the nonventilated and small VT groups.

 
IL-8 and TNF-{alpha} in BALF and plasma.
The concentration of IL-8 in BALF was significantly higher in the large VT group than in the nonventilated or the small VT groups (Figure 2B). Similarly, the concentration of IL-8 in plasma was higher in the large VT group than in the two other groups (nonventilated group, 93.4 ± 30.6 pg/ml; small VT group, 79.8 ± 21.1 pg/ml; large VT group, 175 ± 25 pg/ml; p < 0.05). The TNF-{alpha} concentration in BALF was 96.5 ± 33.8 pg/ml in the large VT group and was undetectable in the other two groups (Figure 2C). The concentrations of TNF-{alpha} in plasma did not show significant differences (nonventilated group, 135 ± 62 pg/ml; small VT group, 254 ± 129 pg/ml; large VT group, 18.7 ± 17.5 pg/ml).

HMGB1 Immunohistochemistry
The lungs with no mechanical ventilation (Figure 3A) and with the small VT ventilation (Figure 3B) contained sparsely distributed inflammatory cells that were mostly not immunoreactive for HMGB1. Alveolar hemorrhage and interstitial congestion and thickening were limited to lungs exposed to the large VT ventilation, which also demonstrated increased numbers of alveolar macrophages and infiltration of many neutrophils (Figure 3C). Some macrophages and neutrophils that had migrated into the alveolar spaces during the large VT ventilation were intensely immunoreactive for HMGB1 (Figure 3D). Only a subset of alveolar epithelial cells was also immunoreactive for HMGB1. The injured lung tissues had no immunohistochemical staining with irrelevant antibody (Figure 3E).


Figure 3
Figure 3
Figure 3
Figure 3
Figure 3
View larger version (536K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 3. Immunohistochemical staining of lung sections for HMGB1. (A) In lungs with no mechanical ventilation, there was no immunoreaction. (B) The lungs ventilated with a small VT (8 ml/kg) for 4 h had a fraction of immunoreactive inflammatory cells. (C) In lungs ventilated with a large VT (30 ml/kg) for 4 h, numerous neutrophils have infiltrated in the alveolar walls and alveolar space (hematoxylin and eosin stain). (D) Macrophages and neutrophils infiltrated in the lungs injured by large VT were immunoreactive for HMGB1 (stained in brown). A subset of alveolar epithelial cells was also immunoreactive (arrows). The inset shows enlargement of an enclosed area. (E) The injured lung tissues had no immunohistochemical staining with irrelevant antibody. Original magnification: x1,000.

 
WBC counts.
The numbers of HMGB1-negative neutrophils or macrophages did not show significant differences among the groups, but the numbers of HMGB1-positive neutrophils and macrophages increased significantly in the large VT group compared with the nonventilated group (Figures 4A and 4B). There were no significant differences between the total cell counts for neutrophils and macrophages in each group.


Figure 4
Figure 4
View larger version (24K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 4. Effect of mechanical ventilation on the accumulation of inflammatory cells in lungs with no mechanical ventilation versus lungs ventilated with a small (8 ml/kg) or a large VT (30 ml/kg) for 4 h in immunohistochemical staining for HMGB1. (A) Neutrophil counts per mm2 in 10 randomly chosen views in the lung section. (B) Macrophage counts per mm2 in 10 randomly chosen views in the lung section. A horizontal bar represents a mean value in each group. n = 3 in each group. *p < 0.05 versus the nonventilated group.

 
Immunofluorescence of Inflammatory Cells for HMGB1
To identify the source of HMGB1 released in the lung during large VT ventilation, we performed immunohistochemistry using anti-HMGB1 antibodies. Unstimulated alveolar macrophages collected from the lung with no mechanical ventilation (control group) did not stain for HMGB1 (Figure 5A), whereas those stimulated with LPS (LPS-stimulated group) stained prominently for HMGB1 (Figure 5B). Similarly, macrophages collected from the lung ventilated with a large VT were positively stained for HMGB1 (Figure 5C), whereas there was no expression of HMGB1 on neutrophils from control lungs and lungs ventilated with a large VT.


Figure 5
Figure 5
Figure 5
View larger version (144K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 5. Immunofluorescence staining of macrophages for HMGB1. The red Cy3 signal shows immunostaining against HMGB1, and the blue signal shows nuclear staining with 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. (A) Macrophages collected from a lung with no mechanical ventilation (arrows). (B) Macrophages collected from a lung with no mechanical ventilation and incubated for 4 h with LPS (arrows). (C) Macrophages collected from a lung ventilated with a large VT (30 ml/kg) for 4 h (arrows). No staining was observed in unstimulated macrophages (A). Macrophages incubated with LPS (B) or collected from an overventilated lung (C) were stained, whereas the neutrophils collected from normal or overventilated lungs were not stained for HMGB1 (arrowheads). Original magnification: x400.

 
Effect of Intratracheal Instillation of Anti-HMGB1 Antibody on VILI
There were no significant differences in ventilatory settings (data not shown), pH, and PCO2 among the study groups treated with normal saline, anti-HMGB1, or control antibodies (Table E3). After 4 h of ventilation, PO2 was significantly higher in the anti-HMGB1 antibody group compared with both other groups (normal saline group: 57.4 ± 4.1 mm Hg, p < 0.01, vs. the anti-HMGB1 antibody group; control antibody group: 59.8 ± 9.0 mm Hg, p = 0.01, vs. the anti-HMGB1 antibody group; anti-HMGB1 antibody group: 106 ± 18 mm Hg).

Permeability index and W/D ratio.
The permeability index was significantly lower in the anti-HMGB1 antibody group than in the normal saline group or in the control antibody group (Figure 6A), whereas the W/D ratio was similar among the study groups (Figure 6B).


Figure 6
Figure 6
Figure 6
Figure 6
View larger version (75K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 6. Effect of intratracheal instillation of normal saline, control antibody, or anti-HMGB1 antibody on lung permeability, W/D weight ratio, LDH release, and the accumulation of inflammatory cells in the lungs after mechanical ventilation with a large VT (30 ml/kg) for 4 h. (A) Lung albumin permeability index. (B) W/D ratio in right lower lobes. (C) LDH in BALF. (D) Neutrophil and macrophage counts in BALF. Values are means ± SEM. n = 6 in each group. *p < 0.001 versus the normal saline and control antibody groups. {dagger}p < 0.05 versus the normal saline group. {ddagger}p < 0.0001 versus the normal saline group, and p < 0.01 versus the control antibody group. §p < 0.01 versus the normal saline group.

 
LDH in BALF and plasma.
The LDH activity in BALF was significantly lower in the control antibody group than in the normal saline group and was lowest in the anti-HMGB1 antibody group (Figure 6C). Plasma LDH activity was significantly lower in the anti-HMGB1 antibody group (81.1 ± 6.7 IU/L) than in the normal saline group (234 ± 56 IU/L; p < 0.01 vs. the anti-HMGB1 antibody group), whereas LDH in the control antibody group (140 ± 7.8 IU/L) was intermediate.

WBC counts.
The number of neutrophils in the BALF was lower in the control antibody and the anti-HMGB1 antibody groups than in the normal saline group. Macrophage counts were similar among the groups (Figure 6D).

IL-8 and TNF-{alpha} in BALF and plasma.
The concentration of IL-8 in the BALF was similar among the study groups (Figure 7A). There was a significant difference in the plasma concentration of IL-8 between the control antibody group (257 ± 19 pg/ml) and the anti-HMGB1 antibody group (181 ± 16 pg/ml; p < 0.05 vs. the control antibody group), whereas the levels of IL-8 in the normal saline group (211 ± 31 pg/ml) were intermediate between the two other groups. BALF TNF-{alpha} was significantly higher in the normal saline and control antibody groups than in the anti-HMGB1 antibody group (Figure 7B). The concentrations of TNF-{alpha} in plasma were similar among the three groups (normal saline group, 480 ± 119 pg/ml; control antibody group, 506 ± 143 pg/ml; anti-HMGB1 antibody group, 260 ± 131 pg/ml).


Figure 7
Figure 7
View larger version (38K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 7. IL-8 and TNF-{alpha} concentrations in BALF after intratracheal administration of normal saline, control antibody, or anti-HMGB1 antibody followed by subsequent mechanical ventilation with a large VT (30 ml/kg) for 4 h. (A) IL-8 concentration in BALF. (B) TNF-{alpha} concentration in BALF. Values are means ± SEM. n = 6 in each group. *p < 0.05 versus the normal saline and control antibody groups.

 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
Our study provides three observations. First, ventilation with a large VT caused prominent VILI in our rabbit model, which was associated with fivefold higher HMGB1 concentrations in BALF than ventilation with a small VT. Second, immunostaining showed that the sources of HMGB1 were not only alveolar macrophages but also neutrophils. Third, measurements of microvascular permeability and oxygenation revealed that lung injury caused by ventilation with a large VT could be mitigated by pretreatment with anti-HMGB1 antibody. Furthermore, administration of anti-HMGB1 antibody significantly reduced the VILI-induced elevations of TNF-{alpha} in the BALF while leaving IL-8 concentrations unchanged.

In preliminary studies in rabbits, we observed that the degree of ALI caused by 4 h of mechanical ventilation was dependent on VT. Although a VT of 30 ml/kg caused prominent lung injury, 20 ml/kg was not associated with an increase in W/D ratio. We had previously shown that mechanical ventilation with a VT of 20 ml/kg caused an infiltration of neutrophils, increased the IL-8 concentration in BALF (16), and enhanced the expression of CD14 protein on alveolar macrophages (17). It has also been reported that rabbit lungs mechanically ventilated for 6 h with a VT of 10 ml/kg develop an increase in W/D ratio and up-regulated gene expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, TNF-{alpha}, and IL-1beta, although there was no increase in the protein concentrations of these cytokines (18). In a rat model of acid-induced lung injury, lungs mechanically ventilated for 4 h with a 12 ml/kg VT and 10 cm H2O positive end-expiratory pressure, with a plateau pressure of approximately 30 cm H2O, a pressure similar to that used in the large VT group in the present study, developed alveolar epithelial and endothelial injury compared with lungs ventilated with a smaller VT (19). In an ex vivo model of VILI, rat lungs mechanically ventilated with a VT of 15 ml/kg for 2 h developed increased concentrations of TNF-{alpha}, IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-10, MIP-2, and IFN-{gamma} in BALF, which increased further when VT was increased to 40 ml/kg (6). ALI and ARDS are not pathologically homogeneous in the lung, with some areas being less affected and more compliant (4, 5). Regions of the lung may be mechanically overstretched even by normal VT ventilation. We chose the VT of 30 ml/kg in this study because it caused evident VILI with significant increase in permeability index and W/D ratio.

Ueno and colleagues reported that HMGB1 was increased in the lung epithelial lining fluid of patients with ALI (11), and previous animal studies demonstrated increased pulmonary HMGB1 concentrations in models of endotoxin- or hemorrhage-induced lung injury (11, 20). Because our intent was to identify the role played by HMGB1 in the development of VILI, we limited the stimulation to mechanical stress produced by the large VT ventilation in intact rabbit lungs.

LDH in BALF was fourfold higher in the group ventilated with a large VT than in that exposed to a small VT. When alveolar type II cells are exposed to mechanical stretch at an increased amplitude or frequency, the release of LDH from the cells is increased in association with their apoptosis and necrosis (21). Because HMGB1 is present in most cell types (9) and can be passively released from necrotic cells (12, 22), it may be released into BALF from injured epithelial cells in VILI. The results of the immunohistochemical study, showing HMGB1-immunoreactive epithelial cells, support this view, although further studies are needed to measure the release of HMGB1 from each cell type.

There was a discrepancy in the inflammatory cell count between the BALF and immunohistochemistry in the large VT group. Although there were no significant differences between macrophage and neutrophil counts in BALF and by immunohistochemistry, macrophages tended to be fewer than neutrophils in the BALF, whereas macrophages tended to be greater in the lung specimen. It is reported that after 40 min of high-pressure (peak inspiratory pressure [PIP] of 45 cm H2O) ventilation, macrophages decreased in the BALF of rat lungs, whereas neutrophils increased (23). There was also greater expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and macrophage antigen-1 on alveolar macrophages in the high-pressure group. Our results support the view that alveolar macrophages tend to stay in the alveolar spaces during BAL, resulting in artificially low numbers of cells in the BALF.

In the lung ventilated with a 30 ml/kg VT, some alveolar macrophages and neutrophils were intensely immunoreactive for HMGB1. The immunofluorescence experiments confirmed the positive expression of HMGB1 in the cytoplasm of macrophages collected from the lung ventilated with a large VT. It has been reported that, in the resting state, macrophages contain HMGB1 in their nucleus while a fraction of HMGB1 is transferred to cytoplasmic vesicles after stimulation with LPS (24). After intratracheal instillation of LPS in mice, nuclear and cytoplasmic expression of HMGB1 was observed in the alveolar macrophages (11). Our study further shows that mechanical ventilation with a large VT stimulates macrophages and neutrophils and increases their cytoplasmic content of HMGB1, although it is unknown whether the HMGB1 in the cytoplasm comes out from the nucleus into the cytoplasm or is produced in the cytoplasm of macrophages and neutrophils. The aspect of mechanical ventilation, whether stretch, shear stress, or increased cytokine concentrations, that is most important for inducing the production of HMGB1 by macrophages and neutrophils also remains to be determined. Although TNF-{alpha} is one of the potential mediators that could cause the release of HMGB1 from macrophages, 4 h of mechanical ventilation seems too short for this mechanism to be operative because in the study by Wang and colleagues, no increase in HMGB1 was observed earlier than 18 h after stimulating murine macrophage-like cells with TNF-{alpha} in vitro (10).

Neutrophils are an alternate source of HMGB1. Although our immunofluorescence experiments did not show HMGB1 expression in neutrophils collected from the lung ventilated with a large VT, neutrophils were immunoreactive for HMGB1 in the immunohistochemical study. At sites of acute inflammation, some neutrophils undergo necrosis, whereas others undergo apoptosis (25). During apoptosis, the surface of neutrophils remains intact, and they can be cleared by macrophages without leaking their potentially injurious contents. However, if macrophages fail to rapidly clear apoptotic neutrophils, the latter undergo secondary necrosis (25). Neutrophils that undergo necrosis cannot be stained by immunofluorescence, although the leakage of HMGB1 from necrotic cells could contribute to its increase in BALF. Because neutrophils in the large VT group were immunoreactive for HMGB1 in the immunohistochemical study, the secretion of HMGB1 from neutrophils has not been excluded as a possible explanation.

The reduction in severity of ALI caused by intratracheal instillation of anti-HMGB1 antibodies is consistent with previous reports showing that anti-HMGB1 reduces endotoxin lethality (10) and attenuates LPS-induced ALI (11, 12). Abraham and colleagues reported that treatment with anti-HMGB1 had no effect on TNF-{alpha} or MIP-2 protein concentrations in endotoxin-induced ALI (12). Although the measurements of IL-8 in our study, which showed no change in its concentrations after the instillation of anti-HMGB1 antibody, are concordant with that report, the measurements of TNF-{alpha}, which showed decreases in concentration after the treatment, were not.

IL-8 is a potent neutrophil chemoattractant that modulates the development of ALI (26, 27) and is produced by bronchial epithelial cells, alveolar epithelium, alveolar macrophages, and smooth muscles of pulmonary vessels after 4 h of mechanical ventilation with a VT of 20 ml/kg (16). In our study, the release of IL-8 into the BALF was increased by ventilation with a large VT, consistent with previous observations (16, 28, 29). HMGB1 activates the gene expression of IL-8 in neutrophils after a period of 30 min to 4 h (30) and stimulates the release of IL-8 from monocytes within 4 h (31). Although neutrophil infiltration was suppressed in anti-HMGB1–treated animals, IL-8 was not decreased after treatment with intratracheal anti-HMGB1 antibodies.

We observed decreased LDH concentration and neutrophil counts in BALF after intratracheal instillation of control antibody compared with normal saline. These findings suggest that instillation of polyclonal antibodies might have suppressive effect on the production of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators in VILI, although the detailed mechanism remains unclear.

In a murine model of endotoxin-induced ALI, treatment with anti-HMGB1 antibodies before or after the administration of endotoxin significantly suppressed the accumulation of neutrophils into the lungs but had no effect on the production of MIP-2 (12). Because HMGB1 increases the expression of ICAM-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) on human endothelial cells (32, 33), blockade of HMGB1 may have decreased the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on the lung endothelial cells and, consequently, may have limited the appearance of neutrophils in the BALF. Future studies are necessary to examine further interaction between HMGB1 and ICAM-1/VCAM-1 in the development of VILI.

There is discordance among studies regarding the release of TNF-{alpha} in VILI. In some studies, mechanical ventilation per se did not cause the release of detectible amounts of TNF-{alpha} (16, 28, 34), whereas it did in others (6). In the current study, release of TNF-{alpha} into the BALF was observed only in the large VT group. This observation may be explained by the stimulation of TNF-{alpha} synthesis in monocytes within 3 h by HMGB1 (31) and by its activation of the gene expression of TNF-{alpha} in neutrophils after a period of 30 min to 4 h (30). The decrease in TNF-{alpha} concentrations in BALF by treatment with anti-HMGB1 antibodies suggests that HMGB1 in the BALF plays an important role in the regulation of TNF-{alpha} production in VILI. TNF-{alpha} also enhances the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on human endothelial cells (35, 36). The decreased number of neutrophils after blockade of HMGB1 might be due to lower concentrations of TNF-{alpha}, which decreased the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on the lung endothelial cells.

The discrepancy between the permeability index and the W/D ratio in the HMGB1 blockade study could be the result of the difference in the sensitivity and the specificity of each measurement because the value of permeability index of the large VT group was 30 times that of the nonventilated group, whereas the W/D ratio showed only 1.7 times difference. The permeability index with HSA might be able to detect a slight change in the lung microvascular permeability. Because HSA was given intravenously 1 h before the animals were killed and calculated as the ratio of its concentration in BALF to plasma at the time point of death, the permeability index might only represent the leakage of the HSA from plasma during this 1 h, whereas the W/D ratio represents the amount of water in the lung accumulating through the whole experimental time.

Administration of HMGB1 in high doses causes death in mice within 18 to 36 h (10), and an acute, diffuse inflammatory response has been observed 24 h after its intratracheal instillation (11, 12). The present experiments showed that the intratracheal instillation of anti-HMGB1 antibody reduced the release of LDH and limited the increase in microvascular permeability after 4 h of injurious mechanical ventilation, preserving cell integrity and oxygenation. Although it is a late mediator of LPS, HMGB1 might express its toxicity in a short period of time in VILI.

In conclusion, mechanical ventilation with a large VT alone can increase HMGB1 in the alveolar space, partially contributing to the pathogenesis of VILI. Although the mechanism by which blockade of HMGB1 reduces the severity of VILI-induced ALI needs to be further studied, these results suggest that HMGB1 may be an appropriate therapeutic target in VILI.


   Acknowledgments
 
The authors thank Michiko Yamamoto, B.S., for technical support and Ikuro Maruyama, M.D., for valuable advice.


   FOOTNOTES
 
Supported by the Keio Gijuku Postgraduate School Fund for the Advancement of Research and by a grant-in-aid for Fundamental Scientific Research from the Education Ministry of Japan 07670678 (A.I.) and 16390457 (S.H.).

This article has an online supplement, which is accessible from this issue's table of contents at www.atsjournals.org

Originally Published in Press as DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200605-699OC on May 25, 2006

Conflict of Interest Statement: None of the authors has a financial relationship with a commercial entity that has an interest in the subject of this manuscript.

Received in original form September 1, 2005; accepted in final form May 25, 2006


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 

  1. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1301–1308.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Dreyfuss D, Saumon G. Ventilator-induced lung injury: lessons from experimental studies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:294–323.[Medline]
  3. Gattinoni L, D'Andrea L, Pelosi P, Vitale G, Pesenti A, Fumagalli R. Regional effects and mechanism of positive end-expiratory prssure in early adult respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 1993;269:2122–2127.[Abstract]
  4. Gattinoni L, Presenti A, Torresin A, Baglioni S, Rivolta M, Rossi F, Scarani F, Marcolin R, Cappelletti G. Adult respiratory distress syndrome profiles by computed tomography. J Thorac Imaging 1986;1:25–30.[Medline]
  5. Maunder RJ, Shuman WP, McHugh JW, Marglin SI, Butler J. Preservation of normal lung regions in the adult respiratory distress syndrome: analysis by computed tomography. JAMA 1986;255:2463–2465.[Abstract]
  6. Tremblay L, Valenza F, Ribeiro S, Li J, Slutsky AS. Injurious ventilatory strategies increase cytokines and c-fos mRNA expression in an isolated rat lung model. J Clin Invest 1997;99:944–952.[Medline]
  7. Vlahakis NE, Schroeder MA, Limper AH, Hubmayr RD. Stretch induces cytokine release by alveolar epithelial cells in vitro. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 1999;277:L167–L173.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Liu M, Tanswell AK, Post M. Mechanical force-induced signal transduction in lung cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 1999;277:L667–L683.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Prasad S, Thakur MK. Age-dependent effects of sodium butyrate and hydrocortisone on acetylation of high mobility group proteins of rat liver. Biochem Int 1988;16:375–382.[Medline]
  10. Wang H, Bloom O, Zhang M, Vishnubhakat JM, Ombrellino M, Che J, Frazier A, Yang H, Ivanova S, Borovikova L, et al. HMG-1 as a late mediator of endotoxin lethality in mice. Science 1999;285:248–251.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Ueno H, Matsuda T, Hashimoto S, Amaya F, Kitamura Y, Tanaka M, Kobayashi A, Maruyama I, Yamada S, Hasegawa N, et al. Contribution of high mobility group box protein in experimental and clinical acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;170:1310–1316.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  12. Abraham E, Arcaroli J, Carmody A, Wang H, Tracy KJ. HMG-1 as a mediator of acute lung inflammation. J Immunol 2000;165:2950–2954.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Scaffidi P, Misteli T, Bianchi ME. Release of chromatin protein HMGB1 by necrotic cells triggers inflammation. Nature 2002;418:191–195.[CrossRef][Medline]
  14. Yamamoto T, Kajikawa O, Martin TR, Sharar SR, Harlan JM, Winn RK. The role of leukocyte emigration and IL-8 on the development of lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury in rabbits. J Immunol 1998;161:5704–5709.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Yamada S, Inoue K, Yakabe K, Imaizumi H, Maruyama I. High mobility group protein 1 (HMGB1) quantified by ELISA with a monoclonal antibody that does not cross-react with HMGB2. Clin Chem 2003;49:1535–1537.[Free Full Text]
  16. Kotani M, Kotani T, Ishizaka A, Fujishima S, Koh H, Takasa S, Sawafuji M, Ikeda E, Moriyama K, Kotake Y, et al. Neutrophil depletion attenuates interleukin-8 production in mild-overstretch ventilated normal rabbit lung. Crit Care Med 2004;32:514–519.[CrossRef][Medline]
  17. Moriyama K, Ishizaka A, Nakamura M, Kubo H, Kotani T, Yamamoto S, Ogawa EN, Kajikawa O, Frevert CW, Kotake Y, et al. Enhancement of the endotoxin recognition pathway by ventilation with a large tidal volume in rabbits. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2004;286:L1114–L1121.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  18. Bregeon F, Roch A, Delpierre S, Ghigo E, Autillo-Touati A, Kajikawa O, Martin TR, Pugin J, Portugal H, Auffray JP, et al. Conventional mechanical ventilation of healthy lungs induced pro-inflammatory cytokine gene transcription. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2002;132:191–203.[CrossRef][Medline]
  19. Frank JA, Gutierrez JA, Jones KD, Allen L, Dobbs L, Matthay MA. Low tidal volume reduces epithelial and endothelial injury in acid-injured rat lungs. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:242–249.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  20. Kim JY, Park JS, Strassheim D, Douglas I, del Valle FD, Asehnoune K, Mitra S, Kwak SH, Yamada S, Maruyama I, et al. HMGB1 contributes to the development of acute lung injury after hemorrhage. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2005;288:L958–L965.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  21. Hammerschmidt S, Kuhn H, Grasenack T, Gessner C, Wirtz H. Apoptosis and necrosis induced by cyclic mechanical stretching in alveolar type II cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2004;30:396–402.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Degryse B, Bonaldi T, Scaffidi P, Müller S, Resnati M, Sanvito F, Arrigoni G, Bianchi ME. The high mobility group (HMG) boxes of the nuclear protein HMG1 induce chemotaxis and cytoskeleton reorganization in rat smooth muscle cells. J Cell Biol 2001;152:1197–1206.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  23. Imanaka H, Shimaoka M, Matsuura N, Nishimura M, Ohta N, Kiyono H. Ventilator-induced lung injury is associated with neutrophil infiltration, macrophage activation, and TGF-beta 1 mRNA upregulation in rat lungs. Anesth Analg 2001;92:428–436.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Bonaldi T, Talamo F, Scaffidi P, Ferrera D, Porto A, Bachi A, Rubartelli A, Agresti A, Bianchi ME. Monocytic cells hyperacetylate chromatin protein HMGB1 to redirect it towards secretion. EMBO J 2003;22:5551–5560.[CrossRef][Medline]
  25. Haslett C. Granulocyte apoptosis and its role in the resolution and control of lung inflammation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:S5–S11.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  26. Miller EJ, Cohen AB, Nagao S, Griffith D, Maunder RJ, Martin TR, Weiner-Kronish JP, Sticherling M, Christophers E, Matthay MA. Elevated levels of NAP-1/interleukin-8 are present in the airspaces of patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome and are associated with increased mortality. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;146:427–432.[Medline]
  27. Donnelly SC, Strieter RM, Kunkel SL, Walz A, Robertson CR, Carter DC, Grant IS, Pollok AJ, Haslett C. Interleukin-8 and development of adult respiratory distress syndrome in at-risk patient groups. Lancet 1993;341:643–647.[CrossRef][Medline]
  28. Ricard JD, Dreyfuss D, Saumon G. Production of inflammatory cytokines in ventilator-induced lung injury: a reappraisal. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:1176–1180.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  29. Haitsma JJ, Uhlig S, Verbrugge SJ, Goggel R, Poelma DLH, Lachmann B. Injurious ventilation strategies cause systemic release of IL-6 and MIP-2 in rats in vivo. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2003;23:349–353.[CrossRef][Medline]
  30. Park JS, Arcaroli J, Yum HK, Yang H, Wang H, Yang KY, Choe KH, Strassheim D, Pitts TM, Tracey KJ, et al. Activation of gene expression in human neutrophils by high mobility group box 1 protein. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2003;284:C870–C879.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  31. Andersson U, Wang H, Palmblad K, Aveberger A-C, Bloom O, Erlandsson-Harris H, Janson A, Kokkola R, Zhang M, Yang H, et al. High mobility group 1 protein (HMG-1) stimulates proinflammatory cytokine synthesis in human monocytes. J Exp Med 2000;192:565–570.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Fiuza C, Bustin M, Talwar S, Tropea M, Gerstenburger E, Shelhamer JH, Suffredini AF. Inflammation-promoting activity of HMGB-1 on human microvascular endothelial cells. Blood 2003;101:2652–2660.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  33. Treutiger CJ, Mullins GE, Johansson ASM, Rouhiainen A, Rauvala HME, Erlandsson-Harris H, Andersson U, Yang H, Tracey KJ, Andersson J, et al. High mobility group 1 B-box mediates activation of human endothelium. J Intern Med 2003;254:375–385.[CrossRef][Medline]
  34. Verbrugge SJC, Uhlig S, Neggers SJCMM, Martin C, Held HD, Haitsma JJ, Lachmann B. Differential ventilation strategies affect lung function but do not increase tumor necrosis factor-{alpha} and prostacyclin production in lavaged rat lungs in vivo. Anesthesiology 1999;91:1834–1843.[CrossRef][Medline]
  35. Burke-Gaffney A, Hellewell PG. Tumor necrosis factor-{alpha}-induced ICAM-1 expression in human vascular endothelial and lung epithelial cells: modulation by tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Br J Pharmacol 1996;119:1149–1158.
  36. Woo CH, Lim JH, Kim JH. VCAM-1 upregulation via PKC{delta}-p38 kinase-linked cascade mediates the TNF-{alpha}-induced leukocyte adhesion and emigration in the lung airway epithelium. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2005;288:L307–L316.[Abstract/Free Full Text]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 J. Immunol.Home page
Y. Sha, J. Zmijewski, Z. Xu, and E. Abraham
HMGB1 Develops Enhanced Proinflammatory Activity by Binding to Cytokines
J. Immunol., February 15, 2008; 180(4): 2531 - 2537.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
R. M. Levy, K. P. Mollen, J. M. Prince, D. J. Kaczorowski, R. Vallabhaneni, S. Liu, K. J. Tracey, M. T. Lotze, D. J. Hackam, M. P. Fink, et al.
Systemic inflammation and remote organ injury following trauma require HMGB1
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, October 1, 2007; 293(4): R1538 - R1544.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
E. B. Milbrandt, A. Ishizaka, and D. C. Angus
Update in Critical Care 2006
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., April 1, 2007; 175(7): 638 - 648.
[Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Online Supplement
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
200605-699OCv1
174/4/400    most recent
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Ogawa, E. N.
Right arrow Articles by Takeda, J.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Ogawa, E. N.
Right arrow Articles by Takeda, J.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol.
Copyright © 2006 American Thoracic Society