help button home button
AJRCCM
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Published ahead of print on September 25, 2003, doi:10.1164/rccm.200302-206OC
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Online Supplement
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
200302-206OCv1
200302-206OCv2
169/2/156    most recent
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Harsch, I. A.
Right arrow Articles by Ficker, J. H.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Harsch, I. A.
Right arrow Articles by Ficker, J. H.
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine Vol 169. pp. 156-162, (2004)
© 2004 American Thoracic Society

Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Treatment Rapidly Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

Igor A. Harsch, Simin Pour Schahin, Martin Radespiel-Tröger, Oliver Weintz, Holger Jahreiß, Florian S. Fuchs, Gunther H. Wiest, Eckhart G. Hahn, Tobias Lohmann, Peter C. Konturek and Joachim H. Ficker

Department of Medicine I; Department of Medical Informatics, Biometrics, and Epidemiology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen; Department of Medicine 3, Klinikum Nürnberg, Nuremberg, Germany

Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Igor Alexander Harsch, M.D., Department of Medicine I, Friedrich-Alexander University, Division of Respiratory Medicine and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Ulmenweg 18, 91054 Erlangen, Germany. E-mail: igor.harsch{at}med1.imed.uni-erlangen.de


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
The obstructive sleep apnea syndrome is typically associated with conditions known to increase insulin resistance as hypertension, obesity, and diabetes. We investigated whether obstructive sleep apnea itself is an independent risk factor for increased insulin resistance and whether continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment improves insulin sensitivity. Forty patients (apnea–hypopnea index > 20) were treated with CPAP. Before, 2 days after, and after 3 months of effective CPAP treatment, hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp studies were performed. Insulin sensitivity significantly increased after 2 days (5.75 ± 4.20 baseline versus 6.79 ± 4.91 µmol/kg · min; p = 0.003) and remained stable after 3 months of treatment. The improvement in insulin sensitivity after 2 days was much greater in patients with a body mass index less than 30 kg/m2 than in more obese patients. The improved insulin sensitivity after 2 nights of treatment may reflect a decreasing sympathetic activity, indicating that sleep apnea is an independent risk factor for increased insulin resistance. The effect of CPAP on insulin sensitivity is smaller in obese patients than in nonobese patients, suggesting that in obese individuals insulin sensitivity is mainly determined by obesity and, to a smaller extent, by sleep apnea.

Key Words: obstructive sleep apnea syndrome • continuous positive airway pressure treatment • insulin sensitivity • obesity • leptin

Obesity has a high prevalence in many societies and is closely related to the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) (1) as well as to hypertension (2), diabetes mellitus (3–5), and other features of the metabolic syndrome (6). Previous studies found a high incidence of OSAS within the general population (2–4% of adult men and 1–2% of adult women) (7, 8). Patients with OSAS have a higher incidence of morbidity and mortality due to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, even in cases of mild obstructive sleep apnea (9). The metabolic syndrome is characterized by increased insulin resistance. Some authors speculate that in patients with OSAS the increased insulin resistance is partially mediated by an increased sympathetic activity caused by frequent nocturnal microarousals and nocturnal hypoxemia (10–14).

The standard treatment for OSAS is nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). This treatment rapidly improves the patients condition by reducing daytime sleepiness and improving vigilance. Recently, a significant reduction of mean arterial ambulatory blood pressure by effective CPAP treatment has been demonstrated (15), and CPAP is known to reduce sympathetic drive in OSAS (10). However, positive metabolic effects of CPAP treatment (e.g., improving insulin sensitivity) are still under discussion (16–18). Increased insulin resistance seems to play a key role among the mechanisms responsible for the metabolic effects of OSAS (19). The presence of increased insulin resistance has repeatedly been reported in patients with OSAS (16–18, 20–24). However, insulin resistance is not uncommon in the general population and is also associated with obesity, immobility, use of different drugs, and a variety of other conditions also frequently present in OSAS (16–25). Investigations addressing the question of whether OSAS itself is an independent risk factor of insulin resistance in these patients have led to conflicting results (16–18, 26, 27).

One study showed a tendency to improved insulin sensitivity after 4 months of CPAP treatment measured by hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp (16), but two other investigations (measurements after 2 and 3 months) could not confirm this result (17, 18). One reason for these conflicting findings could be the lack of statistical power due to low patient numbers. Thus, to date it is not clear whether the successful treatment of OSAS or the concomitant weight reduction and changes in lifestyle were the key factors in decreasing insulin resistance in nondiabetic patients with OSAS (20). Some authors speculate that insulin resistance in OSAS is mainly induced by increased sympathetic drive. Since the elevated sympathetic drive is mainly mediated via adrenal hormones with their short half–lives (28, 29), a significant reduction of insulin resistance should be achieved by CPAP therapy within a short period of time without any changes in body weight or lifestyle. To determine whether such rapid effects occur, using hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp technique, we studied patients without diabetes with moderate to severe OSAS before and 2 days after initiation of CPAP treatment (30). In addition, we investigated the insulin sensitivity 3 months after onset of CPAP treatment to determine if the effect of CPAP treatment on insulin sensitivity is maintained for a longer period of time.

Leptin is an adipocyte-derived hormone with important functions in appetite behavior and energy homeostasis. It decreases during CPAP treatment in patients with OSAS even without concomitant weight loss (24, 31). In animal models, respiratory effects of this hormone have been demonstrated clearly (32). The implications of the decrease of serum leptin in humans treated with CPAP are not that clear. Adipose tissue, the main source of leptin, is an important factor determining insulin resistance. We measured serum leptin levels at the same time points at which insulin sensitivity was measured to investigate whether changes in insulin resistance are paralleled by changes in leptin levels. Some of the preliminary results of this study have been previously reported as an abstract (33).


   METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Patients
Forty patients (34 males, 6 females) with OSAS, mean age 53.81 ± 11.84 years, participated in the study. Mean body mass index (BMI) was 32.76 ± 6.92 kg/m2. Patients were free from severe accompanying diseases. Hyperlipidemia was present in 20 patients and hypertension was present in 24 patients. Five patients had an impaired fasting glucose. These diagnoses were made according to standard criteria (34–36). No patient had diabetes mellitus. Antihypertensives influencing insulin sensitivity were withdrawn 1 week before the clamp studies (n = 4) (25, 37). All patients had OSAS, with a mean apnea–hypopnea index (AHI) of 43.10 ± 11.38, and complained about impaired performance and daytime sleepiness (Epworth sleepiness scale: 12.9 ± 3.6; range 9–23) (38).

The 40 patients underwent a first night with diagnostic polysomnography as previously described (39, 40), a routine blood examination, and a measurement of serum leptin. Bioelectrical impedance measurements were performed and insulin responsiveness was measured by a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp at 7:00 A.M. The following night, CPAP treatment was initiated according to a standard CPAP-titration protocol (41) and on the third night, CPAP was performed with the previously established minimal effective CPAP pressure followed by a second clamp the next morning. In the remaining 31 patients, the clamp studies were repeated after approximately 3 months (93.97 ± 25.22 days) and a further night with polysomnography with effective CPAP treatment. Nine of the forty patients had removed or discontinued CPAP therapy due to discomfort. The same laboratory parameter measurements were repeated as after the first night as was bioelectrical impedance analysis. The medical treatment for all patients remained unchanged throughout the study.

The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Friedrich-Alexander-University, Erlangen-Nuremberg. All patients gave written informed consent to participate in this study.

Hyperinsulinemic Euglycemic Clamp
Insulin responsiveness was measured by a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp after a 10-hour overnight fasting period as described by de Fronzo and coworkers (30). Insulin (Actrapid U 40 HM; Novo Nordisk, Bagsvaerd, Denmark) was administered at a rate of 1 mU/kg · minute. Serum glucose levels were measured every 10 minutes. The insulin sensitivity index (ISI) was calculated from the insulin measurements and the corresponding glucose infusion rates during that period (given as µmol/kg · min).

Sleep Studies
Polysomnography was performed according to the recommendations of the American Thoracic Society (39) and the German Sleep Society (40, 41). Sleep staging was performed using the criteria of Rechtschaffen and Kales (42), and microarousals were defined in accordance with the definitions of the American Sleep Disorders Association (43). Variables extracted were the following: AHI, arousal index, oxygen desaturation index (number of oxygen desaturations >= 4%), mean minimal arterial oxygen saturation, as described by Juhasz and coworkers (44).

Statistical Analysis
Descriptive analysis was performed using mean ± SD (parametric data). Relationships between two continuous variables were analyzed using scatter plots and Spearmans {rho} correlation coefficients. Differences between ISI before and after treatment were evaluated using the Wilcoxon test for paired samples. A logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the influence of a baseline BMI of less than 30 kg/m2 on the outcome "change in ISI greater than 0.58 after 2 days" (dichotomization according to sample median) while controlling for age, arterial hypertension, and "baseline AHI less thean 39" (dichotomization according to sample median). Two-sided p values of 0.05 or less were considered significant. All computations were performed with SPSS (Version 11.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
CPAP treatment could initially be effectively established in all 40 patients. AHI and daytime sleepiness were normalized. There were no significant changes of body weight or body fat mass during the 3 months of CPAP treatment. Further characteristics of the patients during the course of treatment are given in Table 1 .


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 1. Characteristics of patients with obstructive sleep apnea at baseline and during the course of treatment with continuous positive airway pressure

 
ISI was significantly improved after 2 days of CPAP treatment in the 40 patients (p = 0.003). In the 31 patients followed-up after 3 months, there was no further significant improvement of ISI, but the difference from baseline remained statistically significant (p = 0.001; Figure 1) . Similar results could be found in a subgroup with BMI less than 30 kg/m2 (normal weight and overweight grade I, per World Health Organization criteria, n = 16). In patients with a BMI of 30 kg/m2 or more (overweight grade II and III, per World Health Organization criteria, n = 24), no significant improvement of ISI could be demonstrated after 2 days of CPAP (Table 2) . Obese and nonobese patients showed no significant differences in any of the other parameters studied with the exception of serum leptin levels (for Table, see online supplement). The individual changes of ISI are shown in Figures 2 and 3 .



View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 1. Improvement in the insulin sensitivity index (ISI) at baseline, 2 days, and 3 months after onset of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment in 31 patients. The insulin sensitivity index is given in µmol/kg · min.

 

View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 2. Changes in the insulin sensitivity index before and during continuous positive airway pressure treatment in the whole patient group as well as in two subgroups with body mass index less than 30 kg/m2 and body mass index greater than 30 kg/m2

 


View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 2. Changes of the ISI, (µmol/kg · min) between baseline and 2 days after onset of CPAP treatment. The changes are significantly different for the whole group (p = 0.003). The degree of changes are furthermore significantly different between the patients with a body mass index (BMI) less than 30 kg/m2, but not in patients with a BMI of 30 kg/m2 or more. The changes in ISI in patients with an impaired fasting glucose are given as white circles.

 


View larger version (17K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 3. Changes of the ISI (µmol/kg · min) between baseline and 3 months after onset of CPAP treatment in the 31 patients with a baseline BMI of less than 30 kg/m2 and the subgroup with a BMI of 30 kg/m2 or more.

 
Because body weight seems to influence the effect of CPAP on insulin responsiveness, a logistic regression analysis of the BMI on the changes between ISI before and after 2 days after CPAP treatment was performed (Table 3) . There was an independent impact of the variable BMI less than 30 kg/m2 on the {Delta} ISI > 0.58 after adjustment for age, AHI, and hypertension. This means that patients with a BMI of less than 30 kg/m2 have a seven-fold higher chance of experiencing an improvement in insulin sensitivity of more than 0.58. The data also show that the change in ISI is not significantly influenced by age, presence or absence of hypertension, or initial AHI in our patient group.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 3. Results of logistic regression analysis of the influence of "body mass index < 30 kg/m2" on "change in insulin sensitivity before and after 2 days of continuous positive airway pressure treatment"*

 
CPAP adherence could be a further factor influencing the changes in ISI. Nine patients discontinued CPAP treatment subsequently, but 31 patients showed good compliance during the first 3 months of treatment (the built-in data stores of the CPAP devices were read out, the number of days of use within the past 42-day period established, and the mean duration of use per treatment night calculated). CPAP devices were used on 38.1 ± 6.4 nights (range: 23–41). The mean duration of use per night was 5.2 ± 0.91 h (range: 2.3–7.8). The possible association between mean duration of CPAP use per night and change in insulin sensitivity from baseline to 3 months was evaluated by scatterplot and by calculation of the Spearman correlation coefficient, and no significant association could be demonstrated (r = 0.21, p = 0.27).

Parameters of the severity of OSAS were studied to investigate a possible influence on and changes in ISI. We found only minor to moderate correlations between the insulin sensitivity before treatment and the parameters AHI (r = -0.30, p = 0.06), arousal index (r = -0.30, p = 0.06), oxygen desaturation index (r = -0.35, p = 0.03) and mean minimal arterial oxygen saturation (r = 0.12, p = 0.54) and between the difference in insulin sensitivity at baseline and after 2 days of treatment and the parameters AHI (r = -0.32, p = 0.047), arousal index (r = -0.11, p = 0.50), oxygen desaturation index (r = -0.31, p = 0.05) and mean minimal arterial oxygen saturation (r = 0.71, p < 0.001). Furthermore, in an additional exploratory logistic regression analysis, no significant independent influence (p = 0.08) of the variable "baseline AHI less than 39" on the variable "baseline ISI less than 3.94" was found when controlling for the interfering variables "percent body fat less than 21.5", "BMI less than 30", or hypertension. Due to the limited case number, inclusion of the variable age was not feasible in this additional analysis.

Serum leptin was studied before and during the course of CPAP treatment. Serum leptin and the ISI were well correlated before CPAP treatment, at 2 days, and at 3 months of CPAP treatment (r = -0.40, r = -0.51, r = -0.61; p = 0.01 in all cases). We found no significant changes between baseline fasting leptin levels after 2 days of CPAP treatment (Table 1). Serum fasting leptin levels were significantly lower at 3 months of CPAP treatment when compared with baseline levels (p < 0.05). Serum fasting leptin levels at baseline showed a strong correlation with the BMI (r = 0.71), as well as the percentage of body fat (r = 0.57). The correlation with AHI was low (r = 0.34).


   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
There is a growing body of literature suggesting that sleep-disordered breathing may be a causal factor for glucose intolerance and insulin resistance (26, 27). Thus, the goal of our study was to investigate whether OSAS itself is an independent risk factor for increased insulin resistance and whether effective CPAP treatment improves insulin sensitivity. Previous studies have already investigated the effect of CPAP treatment on insulin sensitivity in patients with OSAS by euglycemic clamp studies, the standard method used since 1979 to measure insulin sensitivity (30). Those studies had conflicting results. Whereas the study of Brooks and coworkers (16), which employed hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp in severely obese and diabetic patients, showed a tendency towards improved insulin sensitivity after 4 months of CPAP treatment, two other investigations (measurements after 2 and 3 months of treatment) could not confirm this result in patients with OSAS who did not have diabetes (17, 18). A major problem of those investigations was the small patient number (always less than 10 patients), which may not offer enough statistical power to detect significant associations between insulin sensitivity and indices of sleep-disordered breathing. Furthermore, if the reassessment of insulin sensitivity is done 2–4 months after onset of CPAP treatment, other factors influencing insulin sensitivity (e.g., weight, body fat distribution, treatment of concomitant diseases, changes in dietary behavior, smoking, alcohol consumption, and physical activity) also may be of considerable importance. Changes in body weight or fat distribution must especially be taken into consideration as important factors influencing insulin sensitivity when interpreting these previous studies (12). In these studies, the BMI did not change significantly, which is in accordance with our observations, but the percentage of body fat was not measured in those earlier investigations. However, in recent studies, a growing body of data suggests an independent association between OSAS and insulin resistance independent of body weight. Using the homeostasis assessment method to determine insulin sensitivity, and applying stepwise multiple linear regression analysis, Ip and colleagues (26) were able to demonstrate that obesity was the major determinant of insulin resistance in a group of 270 patients with OSAS, but that parameters of sleep-disordered breathing (AHI and minimal oxygen saturation) were also independent determinants of insulin resistance. Punjabi and colleagues (27) also demonstrated an association between an increasing AHI and insulin resistance independent of obesity in mildly obese men.

In our study, we wanted to investigate direct effects of OSAS on insulin resistance with hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp studies performed soon after the onset of CPAP treatment to remove confounding variables, such as fluctuations in body fat or body composition. Assuming that increased nocturnal sympathetic drive is one important mechanism leading to increased insulin resistance in OSAS, and considering the short half-lives of adrenal hormones mainly mediating the sympathetic drive (28, 29), this effect should be quickly reversible after effective treatment of OSAS. It has to be pointed out that the hypothesis of an elevated sympathetic drive is only one possible mechanism; alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function due to sleep disruption and/or hypoxemia also have to be taken into consideration. Such alterations should also be reversible soon. To summarize our results, we could clearly demonstrate an improvement in insulin sensitivity as early as 2 days after onset of effective CPAP therapy in most of our patients.

In our study, we did not perform computed tomography to differentiate between visceral fat accumulation and subcutaneous fat. Changes in body fat distribution may have an impact on insulin sensitivity, but significant changes of the body fat distribution within 2 days can be excluded. However, after 3 months of CPAP treatment, changes in body fat distribution might have taken place. The difference in results compared with those of Saarelainen and colleagues (17) and Smurra and colleagues (18) can be explained by a lack of statistical power in these studies. With this in mind, changes in lifestyle that are difficult to record completely (e.g., physical activity, diet, nicotine and alcohol consumption) will also influence the statistical calculations more in small samples.

In our attempt to identify other factors influencing the change in insulin sensitivity, we investigated the BMI of our patients as well as the glucose metabolism (normal fasting glucose versus impaired fasting glucose, according to the American Diabetes Association criteria). Fasting glucose at baseline was investigated and five patients had an impaired fasting glucose. Unfortunately, due to this low sample size, there was insufficient statistical power to detect an effect of the elevated fasting glucose on the changes in insulin sensitivity (Figure 2). We also analyzed the impact of the severity of OSAS on insulin sensitivity, as there is experimental evidence suggesting that the exposure to hypoxia can induce insulin resistance (45, 46). Furthermore, an independent inverse association between AHI and insulin resistance, independent of obesity, has recently been reported (26, 27). In our study, we were unable to demonstrate a substantial association between parameters indicating the severity of OSAS with the degree of initial insulin resistance or the degree of improvement of insulin sensitivity 2 days after onset of CPAP treatment. It is unlikely that the different methods used for the measurement of insulin sensitivity (homeostasis assessment method versus euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp method) could explain this discrepancy. It is likely that our study had insufficient power to demonstrate such effects. However, it should be pointed out that AHI cannot be considered a parameter that strongly reflects the severity of all aspects of OSAS, such as loss of vigilance, daytime activity, and cardiovascular effects, and may also be a poor predictor of metabolic effects in OSAS.

In our study, we identified obesity as the main predictor for an improvement in insulin sensitivity during CPAP. The leaner patient group had a more rapid improvement in insulin sensitivity, but the effect could also be demonstrated at a later stage of treatment in the more obese group. At all time points, insulin sensitivity was significantly greater in the lean group.

In an attempt to characterize further important factors associated with metabolic effects in OSAS, we measured serum levels of leptin, the product of the ob-gene. Leptin is produced within the adipose tissue, which is known to be a main determinant of insulin resistance. We observed close correlations between serum leptin and the insulin sensitivity index before as well as 2 days and 3 months after the initiation of CPAP treatment. These data suggest a linkage between insulin resistance and leptin, perhaps via the common main determinant, the adipose tissue, and do less to support concepts of leptin as a respiratory stimulus, as demonstrated in animal models (32). The decrease in serum leptin after 3 months of treatment may be related to factors other than sleep-disordered breathing as another distribution of adipose tissue or changes in dietary habits.

In our study, we were able to demonstrate that effective CPAP treatment rapidly improves insulin sensitivity in patients with OSAS. Nevertheless, our study also shows that obesity is a more important determinant of insulin resistance than OSAS. The less obese the patients are, the greater is the improvement in insulin sensitivity brought about by CPAP treatment. Our data are in agreement with the recent study by Ip and colleagues (26). A controversial question still discussed is whether insulin resistance or hyperinsulinemia are independent cardiovascular risk factors. The question is controversial (47–50) because insulin resistance is typically accompanied by clinical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, or hypertension, per se putting the patient at an elevated cardiovascular risk. In the insulin resistance syndrome, the main pathophysiology is probably the dissociation between intermediate metabolic effects of insulin and its growth-promoting effects. However, recent studies, such as the Quebec Cardiovascular Study (47), have provided data that suggest that insulin resistance could be an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, with plasma insulin levels predicting a 1.6-fold higher odds ratio for coronary heart disease with every increase of one standard deviation in insulin concentration. Data from the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (50) indicated no relationship between (exogenous) insulin treatment and cardiovascular disease. In a more recent article by Resnick and colleagues (51), insulin resistance was found to predict diabetes mellitus type 2, but not cardiovascular disease, in American Indians. Rutter and colleagues (52) found insulin resistance associated with increased left ventricular mass, a premier risk factor for cardiovascular disease events in women but not in men. Data from the prospective Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (53) supported the concept of a protective association between greater insulin sensitivity and a reduced risk for the development of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. The authors claim that these findings support the conclusion that interventions improving insulin sensitivity may be beneficial in reducing the atherogenic risk. There is evidence that CPAP treatment can lower blood pressure (16). Furthermore, in medically treated patients with heart failure, CPAP treatment reduces systolic blood pressure and improves left ventricular systolic function (54).

Together with an improvement of blood pressure and heart function due to CPAP therapy, the improvement in insulin sensitivity, clearly demonstrated in our study, might be an important factor contributing to a reduction of cardiovascular risk in patients with OSAS treated with CPAP.


   Acknowledgments
 
The authors are grateful to Professor Dr. Thomas Pieber and his team (L.K.H., University of Graz, Austria) for introduction and training in hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamping and to Dr. Patrick Michaeli for his help with the graphic presentation.


   FOOTNOTES
 
Supported by a grant from the ELAN funds at the University of Erlangen–Nuremberg (0011271) and by a grant of the B.Braun Stiftung.

This article has an online data supplement, which is accessible from this issues table of contents online at www.atsjournals.org

Conflict of Interest Statement: I.A.H. has no declared conflict of interest; S.P.S. has no declared conflict of interest; M.R-T. has no declared conflict of interest; O.W. has no declared conflict of interest; H.J. has no declared conflict of interest; F.S.F. has no declared conflict of interest; G.H.W. has no declared conflict of interest; E.G.H. has no declared conflict of interest; T.L. has no declared conflict of interest; P.C.K. has no declared conflict of interest; J.H.F. has no declared conflict of interest.

Received in original form February 12, 2003; accepted in final form September 20, 2003


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 

  1. Strollo PJ Jr, Rogers RM. Obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med 1996;334:99–104.[Free Full Text]
  2. Fletcher EC. The relationship between systemic hypertension and obstructive sleep apnea: facts and theory. Am J Med 1995;98:118–128.[CrossRef][Medline]
  3. Katsumata K, Okada T, Miyao M, Katsumata Y. High incidence of sleep apnea syndrome in a male diabetic population. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1991;13:45–51.[CrossRef][Medline]
  4. Ficker JH, Dertinger SH, Siegfried W, Konig HJ, Pentz M, Sailer D, Katalinic A, Hahn EG. Obstructive sleep apnoea and diabetes mellitus: the role of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy. Eur Respir J 1998;11:14–19.
  5. Strohl KP. Diabetes and sleep apnea. Sleep 1996;19:S225–S228.[Medline]
  6. Grunstein RR. Metabolic aspects of sleep apnea. Sleep 1996;19:S218–S220.[Medline]
  7. Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J, Weber S, Badr S. The occurrence of sleep-disordered breathing among middle-aged adults. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1230–1235.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Olson LG, King MT, Hensley MJ, Saunders NA. A community study of snoring and sleep-disordered breathing: prevalence. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:711–716.[Abstract]
  9. Young T, Peppard PE, Gottlieb D. Epidemiology of obstructive sleep apnea. A population health perspective. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:1217–1239.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  10. Coy TV, Dimsdale JE, Ancoli IS, Clausen J. Sleep apnoea and sympathetic nervous system activity: a review. J Sleep Res 1996;5:42–50.[CrossRef][Medline]
  11. Marrone O, Riccobono L, Salvaggio A, Mirabella A, Bonanno A, Bonsignore MR. Catecholamines and blood pressure in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 1993;103:722–727.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  12. Stoohs RA, Guilleminault C. Cardiovascular changes associated with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Appl Physiol 1992;72:583–589.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Hedner JA, Darpo B, Ejnell H, Carlson J, Caidahl K. Reduction in sympathetic activity after long-term CPAP treatment in sleep apnoea: cardiovascular implications. Eur Respir J 1995;8:222–229.[Abstract]
  14. Smith ML, Niedermaier ONW, Hardy SM, Decker MJ, Strohl KP. Role of hypoxemia in sleep apnea-induced sympathoexcitation. J Auton Nerv Syst 1996;56:184–190.[CrossRef][Medline]
  15. Pepperell JCT, Ramdassingh-Dow S, Crosthwaite N, Mullins R, Jenkinson C, Stradling JR, Davies RJ. Ambulatory blood pressure after therapeutic and subtherapeutic nasal continuous positive airway pressure for obstructive sleep apnoea. A randomized parallel trial. Lancet 2001;359:204–210.
  16. Brooks B, Cistulli PA, Borkman M, Ross G, McGhee S, Grunstein RR, Sullivan CE, Yue DK. Obstructive sleep apnea in obese noninsulin-dependent diabetic patients: effect of continuous positive airway pressure treatment on insulin responsiveness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:1681–1685.[Abstract]
  17. Saarelainen S, Lahtela J, Kallonen E. Effect of nasal CPAP treatment on insulin sensitivity and plasma leptin. J Sleep Res 1997;6:146–147.[Medline]
  18. Smurra M, Philip P, Taillard J, Guilleminault C, Bioulac B, Gin H. CPAP treatment does not affect glucose-insulin metabolism in sleep apneic patients. Sleep Med 2001;2:207–213.[CrossRef][Medline]
  19. Rett K. The relation between insulin resistance and cardiovascular complications of the insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes Obes Metab 1999;1:S8–16.
  20. Stoohs RA, Facchini F, Guilleminault C. Insulin Resistance and Sleep Disordered Breathing in Healthy Humans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:170–174.[Abstract]
  21. Vgontzas AN, Papanicolaou DA, Bixler EO, Hopper K, Lotsikas A, Lin HM, Kales A, Chrousos GP. Sleep apnea and daytime sleepiness and fatigue: relation to visceral obesity, insulin resistance, and hypercytokinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:1151–1158.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Tiihonen M, Partinen M, Närvänen S. The severity of obstructive sleep apnoea is associated with insulin resistance. J Sleep Res 1993;2:56–61.[Medline]
  23. Petersen KF, Hendler R, Price T, Perseghin G, Rothman DL, Held N, Amatruda JM, Shulman GI. 13C/31P NMR studies on the mechanism of insuln resistance in obesity. Diabetes 1998;47:381–386.[Abstract]
  24. Chin K, Shimizu K, Nakamura T, Narai N, Masuzaki H, Ogawa Y, Mishima M, Nakamura T, Nakao K, Ohi M. Changes in intra-abdominal visceral fat and serum leptin levels in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome following nasal continuous positive airway pressure therapy. Circulation 1999;100:706–712.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  25. Lithell HOL. Effect of antihypertensive drugs on insulin, glucose and lipid metabolism. Diabetes Care 1991;14:203–209.[Abstract]
  26. Ip MS, Lam B, Ng MMT, Lam WK, Tsang KWT, Lam KSL. Obstructive sleep apnea is independently associated with insulin resistance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:670–676.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  27. Punjabi NM, Sorkin JD, Karzel LI, Goldberg AP, Schwartz AR, Smith PL. Sleep-disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle-aged and overweight men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:677–682.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  28. Veldman RG, Fröhlich M, Pincus SM, Veldhuis JD, Roelfsema F. Apparently complete restoration of normal daily adrenocorticotropin, cortisol, growth hormone, and prolactin secretory dynamicy in adults with Cushings disease after clinically successful transsphenoidal adenomectomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:4039–4046.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  29. Grimm M, Weidmann P, Keusch G, Meier A, Gluck Z. Norepinephrine clearance and pressor effect in normal and hypertensive man. Klin Wochenschr 1980;58:1175–1181.[CrossRef][Medline]
  30. DeFronzo RA, Tobin JD, Andres R. Glucose clamp technique: a method for quantifying insulin secretion and resistance. Am J Physiol 1979;237:E214–E223.
  31. Vgontzas AN, Zoumakis M, Bixler EO, Lin HM, Prolo P, Vela-Bueno A, Kales A, Chrousos GP. Impaired nighttime sleep in healthy old versus young adults is associated with elevated plasma interleukin-6 and cortisol levels: physiologic and therapeutic implications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:2087–2095.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. O'Donnell CP, Schaub CD, Haines AS, Berkowitz DE, Tankersley CG, Schwartz AR, Smith PL. Leptin prevents respiratory depression in obesity. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 1999;159:1477–1484.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  33. Pour Schahin S, Harsch IA, Brueckner K, Weintz O, Jahreis H, Fuchs FS, Wiest GH, Hahn EG, Lohmann T, Ficker JH. Continuous positive airway pressure treatment improves insulin sensitivity in non-diabetic patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSA). Am J Crit Care Med 2003; 167:A15.
  34. Expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults: executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486–2497.[Free Full Text]
  35. Chalmers J, Mac Mahon S, Mancia G, et al. 1999 World Health Organization/International Society of Hypertension guidelines for the management of hypertension. Guidelines Subcommittee of the World Health Organization. Clin Exp Hypertens 1999;21:1009–1060.
  36. The Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes mellitus. Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1997;20:1183–1197.[Medline]
  37. Jacob S, Rett K. Differential effect of chronic treatment with two beta-blocking agents on insulin sensitivity: the carvedilol-metoprolol study. J Hypertens 1996;14:489–494.[Medline]
  38. Johns MW. A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: the Epworth sleepiness scale. Sleep 1991;14:540–545.[Medline]
  39. American Thoracic Society. Indications and standards for use of nasal continuous airway pressure (CPAP) in sleep apnea syndromes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:1738–1745.[Medline]
  40. Penzel T, Hajak G, Hoffmann RM. Empfehlungen zur Durchführung und Auswertung polygrafischer Ableitungen im diagnostischen Schlaflabor. EEG EMG Z Elektroenzephalogr Elektromyogr Verwandte Geb 1993;24:65–70.
  41. Ficker JH, Wiest GH, Lehnert G, Hahn EG. Evaluation of an auto-CPAP device for treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea. Thorax 1998;53:643–648.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  42. Rechtschaffen A, Kahles A. A manual of standardized terminology, techniques, and scoring system for sleep stages of human subjects. Public Health Service, Los Angeles: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1968.
  43. Bonnet M, Charley D, Carskadon MA. EEG arousals: scoring rules and examples. Sleep 1992;15:174–184.
  44. Juhasz J, Becker H, Cassel W, Rostig S, Peter J-H. Proportional positive airway pressure: a new concept to treat obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J 2001;17:467–473.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  45. Braun B, Rock PB, Zamudio S, Wolfel GE, Mazzeo RS, Muza SR, Fulco CS, Moore LG, Butterfield GE. Women at altitude: short-term exposure to hypoxia and/or alpha1-adrenergic blockade reduces insulin sensitivity. J Appl Physiol 2001;91:623–631.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  46. Larsen JJ, Hansen JM, Olsen NV, Galbo H, Dela F. The effect of altitude hypoxia on glucose homeostasis in humans. J Physiol 1997;504:241–249.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  47. Despres J-P, Lamarche B, Mauriege P, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, Moorjani S, Lupien P-J. Hyperinsulinemia as an independent risk factor for ischemic heart disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:952–957.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  48. Fontbonne A, Charles MA, Thibult N, Richard JL, Claude JR, Warnet JM, Rosselin GE, Eschwege E. Hyperinsulinemia as a predictor of coronary heart disease mortality in a healthy population: the Paris Prospective Study, 15-year follow-up. Diabetologia 1991;34:356–361.[CrossRef][Medline]
  49. Ferrara A, Barrett-Connor EL, Edelstein SL. Hyperinsulinemia does not increase the risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in elderly men or women with diabetes: the Rancho Bernardo study 1984–1991. Am J Epidemiol 1994;140:857–869.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  50. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulfonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998;352:837–853.[CrossRef][Medline]
  51. Resnick HE, Jones K, Rutolo G, Jain AK, Henderson J, Lu W, Howard BV. Insulin resistance, the metabolic syndrome, and risk of incident cardiovascular disease in nondiabetic American Indians. Diabetes Care 2003;26:861–867.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  52. Rutter MK, Parise H, Benjamin EJ, Levy D, Larson MG, Meigs JB, Nesto RW, Wilson PWF, Vasan RS. Impact of glucose intolerance and insulin resistance on cardiac structure and function: sex-related differences in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2003;107:448–454.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  53. Goff DC Jr, Zaccaro DJ, Haffner SM, Saad MF. Insulin sensitivity and the risk of incident hypertension: insights from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Diabetes Care 2003;26:805–809.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  54. Yaneko Y, Floras JS, Usui K, Plante J, Tkacova R, Kubo T, Ando S, Bradley TD. Cardiovascular effects of continuous positive airway pressure in patients with heart failure and obstructice sleep apnea. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1233–1241.[Abstract/Free Full Text]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Eur Respir JHome page
P. Levy
From the author:
Eur. Respir. J., November 1, 2009; 34(5): 1210 - 1211.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J EndocrinolHome page
D. E Henley, F. Buchanan, R. Gibson, J. A Douthwaite, S. A Wood, W. W Woltersdorf, J. R Catterall, and S. L Lightman
Plasma apelin levels in obstructive sleep apnea and the effect of continuous positive airway pressure therapy
J. Endocrinol., October 1, 2009; 203(1): 181 - 188.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur Respir JHome page
P. Levy, M. R. Bonsignore, and J. Eckel
Sleep, sleep-disordered breathing and metabolic consequences
Eur. Respir. J., July 1, 2009; 34(1): 243 - 260.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ERRHome page
M. R. Bonsignore and J. Eckel
Metabolic aspects of obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome
Eur. Respir. Rev., June 1, 2009; 18(112): 113 - 124.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
V. Y. Polotsky, S. P. Patil, V. Savransky, A. Laffan, S. Fonti, L. A. Frame, K. E. Steele, M. A. Schweizter, J. M. Clark, M. S. Torbenson, et al.
Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Insulin Resistance, and Steatohepatitis in Severe Obesity
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., February 1, 2009; 179(3): 228 - 234.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ACCP Sleep Med Brd RevHome page
R. D. Vorona
Sleep, Sleep Disorders, and the Endocrine System
ACCP Sleep Med Brd Rev, January 1, 2009; 4(0): 163 - 184.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ThoraxHome page
A Barcelo, F Barbe, M de la Pena, P Martinez, J B Soriano, J Pierola, and A G N Agusti
Insulin resistance and daytime sleepiness in patients with sleep apnoea
Thorax, November 1, 2008; 63(11): 946 - 950.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur Respir JHome page
P. Levy, J-L. Pepin, C. Arnaud, R. Tamisier, J-C. Borel, M. Dematteis, D. Godin-Ribuot, and C. Ribuot
Intermittent hypoxia and sleep-disordered breathing: current concepts and perspectives
Eur. Respir. J., October 1, 2008; 32(4): 1082 - 1095.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ChestHome page
Z. Dorkova, D. Petrasova, A. Molcanyiova, M. Popovnakova, and R. Tkacova
Effects of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure on Cardiovascular Risk Profile in Patients With Severe Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Metabolic Syndrome
Chest, October 1, 2008; 134(4): 686 - 692.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
E. Tasali, E. Van Cauter, L. Hoffman, and D. A. Ehrmann
Impact of Obstructive Sleep Apnea on Insulin Resistance and Glucose Tolerance in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2008; 93(10): 3878 - 3884.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 PediatricsHome page
N. Nakra, S. Bhargava, J. Dzuira, S. Caprio, and A. Bazzy-Asaad
Sleep-Disordered Breathing in Children With Metabolic Syndrome: The Role of Leptin and Sympathetic Nervous System Activity and the Effect of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure
Pediatrics, September 1, 2008; 122(3): e634 - e642.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur Respir JHome page
J. Theorell-Haglow, C. Berne, C. Janson, and E. Lindberg
Obstructive sleep apnoea is associated with decreased insulin sensitivity in females
Eur. Respir. J., May 1, 2008; 31(5): 1054 - 1060.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Diabetes CareHome page
S. Seicean, H. L. Kirchner, D. J. Gottlieb, N. M. Punjabi, H. Resnick, M. Sanders, R. Budhiraja, M. Singer, and S. Redline
Sleep-Disordered Breathing and Impaired Glucose Metabolism in Normal-Weight and Overweight/Obese Individuals: The Sleep Heart Health Study
Diabetes Care, May 1, 2008; 31(5): 1001 - 1006.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ThoraxHome page
I A Harsch, E G Hahn, and S Pour Schahin
Effect of CPAP on insulin resistance in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea and type 2 diabetes
Thorax, April 1, 2008; 63(4): 384 - 385.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Proc Am Thorac SocHome page
J. M. Golbin, V. K. Somers, and S. M. Caples
Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Cardiovascular Disease, and Pulmonary Hypertension
Proceedings of the ATS, February 15, 2008; 5(2): 200 - 206.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Proc Am Thorac SocHome page
E. Tasali and M. S. M. Ip
Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Metabolic Syndrome: Alterations in Glucose Metabolism and Inflammation
Proceedings of the ATS, February 15, 2008; 5(2): 207 - 217.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ChestHome page
E. Tasali, B. Mokhlesi, and E. Van Cauter
Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Type 2 Diabetes*: Interacting Epidemics
Chest, February 1, 2008; 133(2): 496 - 506.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Physiol.Home page
T. Yokoe, L. C. Alonso, L. C. Romano, T. C. Rosa, Robert. M. O'Doherty, A. Garcia-Ocana, K. Minoguchi, and C. P. O'Donnell
Intermittent hypoxia reverses the diurnal glucose rhythm and causes pancreatic {beta}-cell replication in mice
J. Physiol., February 1, 2008; 586(3): 899 - 911.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Diabetes CareHome page
G. Pillar and N. Shehadeh
Abdominal Fat and Sleep Apnea: The chicken or the egg?
Diabetes Care, February 1, 2008; 31(Supplement_2): S303 - S309.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ERRHome page
I. A. Harsch
Metabolic disturbances in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome
Eur. Respir. Rev., December 1, 2007; 16(106): 196 - 202.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ThoraxHome page
S. D West, D. J Nicoll, T. M Wallace, D. R Matthews, and J. R Stradling
Effect of CPAP on insulin resistance and HbA1c in men with obstructive sleep apnoea and type 2 diabetes
Thorax, November 1, 2007; 62(11): 969 - 974.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
L. F. Drager, L. A. Bortolotto, A. C. Figueiredo, E. M. Krieger, and G. Lorenzi-Filho
Effects of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure on Early Signs of Atherosclerosis in Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., October 1, 2007; 176(7): 706 - 712.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
W. T. McNicholas
Cardiovascular outcomes of CPAP therapy in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, October 1, 2007; 293(4): R1666 - R1670.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
G. Parati, C. Lombardi, and K. Narkiewicz
Sleep apnea: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and relation to cardiovascular risk
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, October 1, 2007; 293(4): R1671 - R1683.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
S. Redline, A. Storfer-Isser, C. L. Rosen, N. L. Johnson, H. L. Kirchner, J. Emancipator, and A. M. Kibler
Association between Metabolic Syndrome and Sleep-disordered Breathing in Adolescents
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., August 15, 2007; 176(4): 401 - 408.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ThoraxHome page
E. Kelly, G. Cullen, and C. McGurk
Obstructive sleep apnoea in patients with type 2 diabetes
Thorax, July 1, 2007; 62(7): 651 - 651.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 The Diabetes EducatorHome page
E. R. Chasens
Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Daytime Sleepiness, and Type 2 Diabetes
The Diabetes Educator, May 1, 2007; 33(3): 475 - 482.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ChestHome page
M. Kono, K. Tatsumi, T. Saibara, A. Nakamura, N. Tanabe, Y. Takiguchi, and T. Kuriyama
Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome Is Associated With Some Components of Metabolic Syndrome
Chest, May 1, 2007; 131(5): 1387 - 1392.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
N. Iiyori, L. C. Alonso, J. Li, M. H. Sanders, A. Garcia-Ocana, R. M. O'Doherty, V. Y. Polotsky, and C. P. O'Donnell
Intermittent Hypoxia Causes Insulin Resistance in Lean Mice Independent of Autonomic Activity
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., April 15, 2007; 175(8): 851 - 857.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur Respir JHome page
S. R. Coughlin, L. Mawdsley, J. A. Mugarza, J. P. H. Wilding, and P. M. A. Calverley
Cardiovascular and metabolic effects of CPAP in obese males with OSA
Eur. Respir. J., April 1, 2007; 29(4): 720 - 727.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
S. G. Kang, A. L. Brown, and J. H. Chung
Oxygen Tension Regulates the Stability of Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 (IRS-1) through Caspase-mediated Cleavage
J. Biol. Chem., March 2, 2007; 282(9): 6090 - 6097.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Eur Respir JHome page
W. T. McNicholas, M. R. Bonsignore, and the Management Committee of EU COST ACTION B26
Sleep apnoea as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: current evidence, basic mechanisms and research priorities
Eur. Respir. J., January 1, 2007; 29(1): 156 - 178.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Exp PhysiolHome page
R. Wolk and V. K. Somers
Sleep Apnoea & Hypertension: Physiological bases for a causal relation: Sleep and the metabolic syndrome
Exp Physiol, January 1, 2007; 92(1): 67 - 78.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Diabetes CareHome page
Z. T. Bloomgarden
Third Annual World Congress on the Insulin Resistance Syndrome: Associated conditions.
Diabetes Care, September 1, 2006; 29(9): 2165 - 2174.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ThoraxHome page
N T Ayas, G B J Mancini, and J Fleetham
Does CPAP delay the development of cardiovascular disease in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea hypopnoea?
Thorax, June 1, 2006; 61(6): 459 - 460.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 DOC NewsHome page
Investigate Sleep Profiles of Patients With Diabetes
DOC News, March 1, 2006; 3(3): 5 - 5.
[Full Text]

Home page
 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
E. Tasali, E. Van Cauter, and D. A. Ehrmann
Relationships between Sleep Disordered Breathing and Glucose Metabolism in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2006; 91(1): 36 - 42.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
A. I. Pack
Advances in Sleep-disordered Breathing
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., January 1, 2006; 173(1): 7 - 15.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
K. J. Reichmuth, D. Austin, J. B. Skatrud, and T. Young
Association of Sleep Apnea and Type II Diabetes: A Population-based Study
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., December 15, 2005; 172(12): 1590 - 1595.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
M. Arzt, T. Young, L. Finn, J. B. Skatrud, and T. D. Bradley
Association of Sleep-disordered Breathing and the Occurrence of Stroke
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., December 1, 2005; 172(11): 1447 - 1451.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
N. M. Punjabi and V. Y. Polotsky
Disorders of glucose metabolism in sleep apnea
J Appl Physiol, November 1, 2005; 99(5): 1998 - 2007.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
K. Spiegel, K. Knutson, R. Leproult, E. Tasali, and E. V. Cauter
Sleep loss: a novel risk factor for insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes
J Appl Physiol, November 1, 2005; 99(5): 2008 - 2019.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 FocusHome page
S. M. Caples, A. S. Gami, and V. K. Somers
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Focus, October 1, 2005; 3(4): 557 - 567.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 HeartHome page
L J Cormican and A Williams
Sleep disordered breathing and its treatment in congestive heart failure
Heart, October 1, 2005; 91(10): 1265 - 1270.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Circ. Res.Home page
J. Li, L. N. Thorne, N. M. Punjabi, C.-K. Sun, A. R. Schwartz, P. L. Smith, R. L. Marino, A. Rodriguez, W. C. Hubbard, C. P. O'Donnell, et al.
Intermittent Hypoxia Induces Hyperlipidemia in Lean Mice
Circ. Res., September 30, 2005; 97(7): 698 - 706.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 PediatricsHome page
R. Tauman, L. M. O'Brien, A. Ivanenko, and D. Gozal
Obesity Rather Than Severity of Sleep-Disordered Breathing as the Major Determinant of Insulin Resistance and Altered Lipidemia in Snoring Children
Pediatrics, July 1, 2005; 116(1): e66 - e73.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
T. D. Bradley, Y. E. Miller, F. J. Martinez, D. C. Angus, W. MacNee, and E. Abraham
Interstitial Lung Disease, Lung Cancer, Lung Transplantation, Pulmonary Vascular Disorders, and Sleep-disordered Breathing in AJRCCM in 2004
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., April 1, 2005; 171(7): 675 - 685.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ChestHome page
S. Teramoto, H. Yamamoto, Y. Yamaguchi, R. Namba, and Y. Ouchi
Obstructive Sleep Apnea Causes Systemic Inflammation and Metabolic Syndrome
Chest, March 1, 2005; 127(3): 1074 - 1075.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Arch Intern MedHome page
A. R. Babu, J. Herdegen, L. Fogelfeld, S. Shott, and T. Mazzone
Type 2 Diabetes, Glycemic Control, and Continuous Positive Airway Pressure in Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Arch Intern Med, February 28, 2005; 165(4): 447 - 452.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 ANN INTERN MEDHome page
S. M. Caples, A. S. Gami, and V. K. Somers
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Ann Intern Med, February 1, 2005; 142(3): 187 - 197.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
E. H. Schlenker, Y. Shi, J. Wipf, D. S. Martin, and C. K. Kost Jr.
Fructose feeding and intermittent hypoxia affect ventilatory responsiveness to hypoxia and hypercapnia in rats
J Appl Physiol, October 1, 2004; 97(4): 1387 - 1394.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Diabetes CareHome page
I. A. Harsch, S. P. Schahin, and R. Wiedmann
Multiple Symmetric Lipomatosis: A Paradigm of Metabolically Innocent Obesity?: Response to Haap et al.
Diabetes Care, July 1, 2004; 27(7): 1849 - 1850.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Diabetes CareHome page
M. Haap, C. Thamer, H.-U. Haring, R. M. Szeimies, and M. Stumvoll
Multiple Symmetric Lipomatosis: A Paradigm of Metabolically Innocent Obesity?: Response to Harsch, Schahin, and Wiedmann
Diabetes Care, July 1, 2004; 27(7): 1850 - 1850.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
K. M. Oltmanns, H. Gehring, S. Rudolf, B. Schultes, S. Rook, U. Schweiger, J. Born, H. L. Fehm, and A. Peters
Hypoxia Causes Glucose Intolerance in Humans
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., June 1, 2004; 169(11): 1231 - 1237.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.Home page
N. M. Punjabi
Improvement of Metabolic Function in Sleep Apnea: The Power of Positive Pressure
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., January 15, 2004; 169(2): 139 - 140.
[Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Online Supplement
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
200302-206OCv1
200302-206OCv2
169/2/156    most recent
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Harsch, I. A.
Right arrow Articles by Ficker, J. H.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Harsch, I. A.
Right arrow Articles by Ficker, J. H.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol.
Copyright © 2004 American Thoracic Society