Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.,
Volume 156, Number 5, November 1997, 1606-1613
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, granulocyte-macrophage
colony-stimulating factor, and interleukin-6 when stimulated in culture with lipopolysaccharide. In
contrast, the production of transforming growth factor-
, an immunosuppressive cytokine, was similar in all groups. These findings indicate that habitual exposure of the lung to either marijuana or cocaine impairs the function and/or cytokine production of AMs. The ultimate outcome of these effects
may be an enhanced susceptibility to infectious disease, cancer, and AIDS.
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  P. P. Herculiani, R. C. Pires-Neto, H. M. S. Bueno, J. C. Zorzetto, L. C. Silva, A. B. G. Santos, R. C. T. Garcia, M. Yonamine, C. R. P. Detregiachi, P. H. N. Saldiva, et al. Effects of Chronic Exposure to Crack Cocaine on the Respiratory Tract of Mice Toxicol Pathol, April 1, 2009; 37(3): 324 - 332. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. E. Oeltmann, J. S. Kammerer, E. S. Pevzner, and P. K. Moonan Tuberculosis and Substance Abuse in the United States, 1997-2006 Arch Intern Med, January 26, 2009; 169(2): 189 - 197. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. L. Gillison, G. D'Souza, W. Westra, E. Sugar, W. Xiao, S. Begum, and R. Viscidi Distinct Risk Factor Profiles for Human Papillomavirus Type 16-Positive and Human Papillomavirus Type 16-Negative Head and Neck Cancers J Natl Cancer Inst, March 19, 2008; 100(6): 407 - 420. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. S. Restrepo, J. A. Carrillo, S. Martinez, P. Ojeda, A. L. Rivera, and A. Hatta Pulmonary Complications from Cocaine and Cocaine-based Substances: Imaging Manifestations RadioGraphics, July 1, 2007; 27(4): 941 - 956. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Mehra, B. A. Moore, K. Crothers, J. Tetrault, and D. A. Fiellin The association between marijuana smoking and lung cancer: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med, July 10, 2006; 166(13): 1359 - 1367. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 B. Kraft and H. G. Kress Indirect CB2 Receptor and Mediator-Dependent Stimulation of Human Whole-Blood Neutrophils by Exogenous and Endogenous Cannabinoids J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., November 1, 2005; 315(2): 641 - 647. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. B. Haddad, T. W. Wilson, K. Ijaz, S. M. Marks, and M. Moore Tuberculosis and Homelessness in the United States, 1994-2003 JAMA, June 8, 2005; 293(22): 2762 - 2766. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Gekker, S. Hu, M. P. Wentland, J. M. Bidlack, J. R. Lokensgard, and P. K. Peterson {kappa}-Opioid Receptor Ligands Inhibit Cocaine-Induced HIV-1 Expression in Microglial Cells J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., May 1, 2004; 309(2): 600 - 606. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. W. Klein, C. Newton, K. Larsen, L. Lu, I. Perkins, L. Nong, and H. Friedman The cannabinoid system and immune modulation J. Leukoc. Biol., October 1, 2003; 74(4): 486 - 496. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 H. Friedman, C. Newton, and T. W. Klein Microbial Infections, Immunomodulation, and Drugs of Abuse Clin. Microbiol. Rev., April 1, 2003; 16(2): 209 - 219. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. H. Halpern, M. B. Sholar, J. Glowacki, N. K. Mello, J. H. Mendelson, and A. J. Siegel Diminished Interleukin-6 Response to Proinflammatory Challenge in Men and Women after Intravenous Cocaine Administration J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2003; 88(3): 1188 - 1193. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. A. Sarafian, S. Kouyoumjian, F. Khoshaghideh, D. P. Tashkin, and M. D. Roth Delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol disrupts mitochondrial function and cell energetics Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, February 1, 2003; 284(2): L298 - L306. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. C. Baldwin, R. Choi, M. D. Roth, A. H. Shay, E. C. Kleerup, M. S. Simmons, and D. P. Tashkin Evidence of Chronic Damage to the Pulmonary Microcirculation in Habitual Users of Alkaloidal ("Crack") Cocaine* Chest, April 1, 2002; 121(4): 1231 - 1238. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. M. Janjua, A. E. Bohan, and L. J. Wesselius Increased Lower Respiratory Tract Iron Concentrations in Alkaloidal ("Crack") Cocaine Users Chest, February 1, 2001; 119(2): 422 - 427. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. W. Klein, B. Lane, C. A. Newton, and H. Friedman The Cannabinoid System and Cytokine Network Experimental Biology and Medicine, October 1, 2000; 225(1): 1 - 8. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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 L. X. Zhu, S. Sharma, M. Stolina, B. Gardner, M. D. Roth, D. P. Tashkin, and S. M. Dubinett {Delta}-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Inhibits Antitumor Immunity by a CB2 Receptor-Mediated, Cytokine-Dependent Pathway J. Immunol., July 1, 2000; 165(1): 373 - 380. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 Z.-F. Zhang, H. Morgenstern, M. R. Spitz, D. P. Tashkin, G.-P. Yu, J. R. Marshall, T. C. Hsu, and S. P. Schantz Marijuana Use and Increased Risk of Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., December 1, 1999; 8(12): 1071 - 1078. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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 T. A. Sarafian, J. A. M. Magallanes, H. Shau, D. Tashkin, and M. D. Roth Oxidative Stress Produced by Marijuana Smoke . An Adverse Effect Enhanced by Cannabinoids Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., June 1, 1999; 20(6): 1286 - 1293. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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 D. P. Tashkin Effects of Marijuana on the Lung and its Defenses against Infection and Cancer School Psychology International, February 1, 1999; 20(1): 23 - 37. [Abstract] [PDF]
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